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Fu 賦, commonly translated as “rhapsody” or “prose poetry”, is a genre in traditional Chinese literature. The original meaning of the word fu was (besides “collecting taxes”) reciting a text loudly, as can be seen in several statements in the history Zuozhuan 左傳. Educated persons of the Spring and Autumn period 春秋 (770-5th cent. Shijing 詩經 “Book of Songs”. The bibliographic treatise Yiwen zhi 藝文志 in the official dynastic history Hanshu 漢書 explains the word fu as “reciting, but not singing” (bu ge er song 不歌而誦). In the Confucian Classic Zhouli 周禮 “Rites of the Zhou”, the “six types of poems” (liu shi 六詩) are mentioned which are called “six expressions” (liu yi 六義) in the great preface of the Shijing. The Han period 漢 (206 BCE-220 CE) scholar Mao Chang 毛萇 (Mao Junior 小毛公) said that expertise in fu “spreading out” the meaning of the Songs was a requirement to become a grand master (dafu 大夫). The Han period commentator Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 remarks that these six types were called feng 風 “airs”, fu 賦 “extended”, bi 比 “parables”, xing 興 “moody introductions”, ya 雅 “odes” and song 頌 “hymns”. All these explanations are not directly pointing at a concrete literary genre, but its use as a certain form of poem in the Shijing already paved the way for the later meaning. In his preface to his rhapsody Liangdu fu 兩都賦, the Han period writer and historian Ban Gu 班固 therefore says that fu was a branch of the ancient Songs (gu Shi zhi liu 古《詩》之流). The late Warring States period 戰國 (5th cent.-221 BCE) philosopher Xunzi 荀子 wrote a chapter called Fu pian 賦篇 in which he says that a fu text might describe clouds (yun 雲), silkworms (can 蠶), rituals (li 禮), knowledge (zhi 知), or exhortations (zhen 箴). The term fu is explained with the meaning of “to spread out, to decorate” (puchen 鋪陳), in the sense of “describing the present politics in detail to make clear good and evil”. The rhapsodies described by Xunzi consisted of four-syllable verses but were written half in prose, and a half in poetic style, with occasional rhymes. The bibliography Yiwen zhi says that these five were titles of rhapsodies written by Xunzi. The earliest real “rhapsodies” were the poems of the collection Chuci 楚辭, often translated as “Songs from the South” whose earliest texts like the Lisao 離騷 “Sorrow of parting” or the Jiuge 九歌 “Nine songs” were written during the late Warring States period. They were written in pairs of questions and answers that were often constructed like riddles (yinyu 隱語) and an indirect language. The poems of the Chuci collection are not rhapsodies in the proper sense, but they can be seen as the forerunners of the famous Han period rhapsodies. When the whole corpus was compiled by Liu Xiang 劉向 and Liu Xin 劉歆 during the late Former Han period 前漢 (206 BCE-8 CE), they called them “rhapsodies of Qu Yuan” (Qu Yuan fu 屈原賦) and of Song Yu (Song Yu fu 宋玉賦). It is said that “rhapsody” (fu) means “to spread out” (pu 鋪), namely “to pave colours and to spread words” (pu cai chi wen 鋪采摛文). The literary history Wenxin diaolong 文心雕龍 from the Liang period 梁 (502-557) points out the special character of rhapsodies. It is a genre that is used to express a certain purpose (xie zhi 寫志). This style is first found in the poems of Qu Yuan and Song Yu. Compared to the older genre of shi poetry 詩 the fu “rhapsodies” were much more descriptive and illustrative, discursive and peripatetic. Han period rhapsodies describe landscapes, palaces, gardens, details of a hunt, precious objects and strange animals, flowers and trees, fishes and birds, chariots and standards used during imperial activities. Actually, this is only half the truth because rhapsodies, too, have the aim to express a certain sentiment or feeling. The Jin period 晉 (265-420) writer Lu Ji 陸機, who wrote a rhapsody called Wenfu 文賦 “The rhapsody about literature”, therefore says that shi poems went back to emotions and expressed them in an extravagant way, but rhapsodies were based on objects and made them brilliant. The Jin period scholar Huangfu Mi 皇甫謐, author of the rhapsody Sandu fu 三都賦, explains in his preface that during the late Warring States period the old way of the kings was lost, and ancient styles were forgotten, so that the thinkers of that time could not but express their feelings and critiques in rhapsodies. Qu Yuan, for instance, had deep sorrows about the future of his home country Chu 楚. This statement can be supported by the postface (Sima Qian’s 司馬遷 autobiography) in the history Shiji 史記, where it is clearly said that the morale of rhapsodies was to bring forward criticism towards the emperor and the court. Rhapsodies are not only overwhelming in their formal description of scenes and objects, but also in picturing the inner order of things. In the history of the Chinese rhapsody, there are several styles that can be discerned, namely the elegiac rhapsody (saofu 騷賦 or saoti fu 騷體賦), the Han rhapsody (Hanfu 漢賦), the couplet rhapsody (pianfu 駢賦), the rhymed rhapsody (lüfu 律賦), and the prose rhapsody (wenfu 文賦). For both purposes, a flowery language was used, whose words were finely balanced and brought into a poetry-like pattern. Another classification speaks of the gufu “ancient rhapsodies” that includes the elegiac rhapsodies (saofu) and the Han period types of the dafu 大賦 “greater rhapsodies” and xiaofu 小賦 “lesser rhapsodies”. A third classification speaks of the old rhapsody types created by Xunzi, Qu Yuan, Song Yu, and those of the Former Han period. Very typical for the elegiac style of rhapsodies is the use of verse dividers (xi 兮, xie 些 or zhi 只) that were used to express a kind of sighing. The term “elegiac rhapsody” refers to the actual precursors of this genre, namely the Songs of the South (Chuci) with the poems of Qu Yuan and Song Yu and Jia Yi 賈誼 as representative oeuvres, the former from the Warring States period, the two latter from the Former Han. The language of these early rhapsodies is very emotional and is woven in a very dense and picturesque way, with very personal thoughts expressed in metaphors and symbols. Questions and answers were paired in verses, but Song Yu’s rhapsodies, and some of Qu Yuan, are very descriptive. In his rhapsody Funiao fu 鵩鳥賦 “The owl”, for instance, Jia Yi converses with an owl that elucidates to him the mysteries of life. The rhapsody Zhao yinshi 招隱士 “Invitation of a hidden worthy” by Huainan Xiaoshan 淮南小山 describes a landscape. Mei Sheng’s 枚乘 Qifa 七發 “Seven discoverings” are written as a parable in which a physician cures the crown prince, but in fact criticised the diseases by which the court is befallen. Many great Han period poets also wrote elegiac rhapsodies, like Jia Yi (Funiao fu, Diao Qu Yuan fu 吊屈原賦), Sima Xiangru 司馬相如 (Changmen fu 長門賦), Zhang Heng 張衡 (Sixuan fu 思玄賦) and Cai Yong 蔡邕 (Shuxing fu 述行賦). Younger scholars see the elegiac rhapsodies as a separate poetic genre than the proper rhapsodies. The term “Han rhapsody” (Han fu) designates the great rhapsodies of the Han period whose age begins with Mei Cheng’s poem Qifa. There were more than 900 rhapsodies written during the Han period, composed by 60 masters. The typical character of Han period rhapsodies is the strong narrative appeal, with a very detailed description of single spots and activities. The most important representatives of Han period rhapsodies are Sima Xiangru (Zixu fu 子虛賦, Daren fu 大人賦, Meiren fu 美人賦 and Changmen fu), Yang Xiong 揚雄 (Shudu fu 蜀都賦, Ganquan fu 甘泉賦, Hedong fu 河東賦, Yulie fu 羽獵賦, Changyang fu 長楊賦), Ban Gu (Liangdu fu “The two capitals”: Xifu fu 西都賦 “The western capital” and Dongdu fu 東都賦 “The eastern capital”; and the Youtong fu 幽通賦) and Zhang Heng (Liangjing fu 兩京賦). The whole text of these rhapsodies is very long and written in an extremely dense form, with a lot of information on miniscule details. Rhapsodies were therefore considered as a very elegant and refined genre of literature that was used to be recited on very ceremonial happenings. The language is very rich and beautiful and makes use of ancient expressions and rare characters. The language give the impression of prose rather than poetry. The text is often compiled in a question-and-answer pattern, or at least in such a manner that succeeding sentences refer to each other. The “lesser rhapsodies” (xiaofu) are shorter, have shorter verses, and are more direct in the use of language and descriptive words. It is a praise of the glory of the Han dynasty and its courtiers and ministers. Ban Gu’s Liangdu fu describes the palaces of the Western Capital Chang’an 長安 (modern Xi’an 西安, Shaanxi) and the Eastern Capital Luoyang 洛陽 (modern Luoyang, Henan), and the actitivies of the court during rituals, banquets, dances, and imperial hunts. In this function it can be compared with the Shijing hymns and odes. Criticism towards the court’s extravagance is also hidden in some of the verses, but only in a very delicate manner, and not too open. The Liangdu fu was later imitated by Zhang Heng 張衡 (Erdu fu 二京賦) and Zuo Si 左思 (Sandu fu 三都賦). In its style of composition this piece uses a lot of very extraordinary words and characters to describe the court, its persons and proceedings in flowery words and beautiful expressions. Of Mei Gao’s 枚皋 120 rhapsodies, not a single one has survived. Sima Xiangru’s Zixu and Zilin seem to be two parts of one and the same rhapsody with the title of Tianzi youlie fu 天子游獵賦 “The imperial hunt”. Dongfang Shuo’s 東方朔 Qijian 七諫 “Seven admonishions” is written in the ancient elegiac style, but his Da ke nan 答客難 and Feiyou xiansheng lun 非有先生論 are two innovative texts, although they are not titled as rhapsodies. Yang Xiong, living at the end of the Former Han period, wrote some very outstanding rhapsodies, namely Ganquan fu, Hedong fu, Yulie fu and Changyang fu. Wang Bao’s 王褒 Dongxiao fu 洞簫賦 and Jiuhuai 九懷 are also quite outstanding, the former as a “lesser style” rhapsody concentrating on music, and the latter as a text in the tradition of the Songs of the South. His Jiechao 解嘲 in influenced by Dongfang Shuo, and his Zhupin fu 逐貧賦 and Jiufu 酒賦 attack the luxury of the capital Chang’an. They stand in the tradition of Sima Xiangru’s writings but are much more open in their critique towards the extravant life of the elite and their suppression of the lower classes. This was a trend that can also be seen in the yuefu 樂府 “Songs of the Music Bureau” style poems that flourished during the Later Han period. After the mid-Later Han period 後漢 (25-220 CE) the “greater style” rhapsody began to decline, and social problems as well as individual worldviews entered the focus of rhapsody writers. His rhapsody Guitian fu 歸田賦 reflects the wish of many literati to give up their official career in face of the eunuchs’ domination of court politics. Zhang Heng’s Erdu fu stood in the tradition of Ban Gu’s great rhapsody on the two capitals of the Han, but it is much more critical towards the extravagant life of the ruling elite that stood in blatant constrast with the poverty of the common man. A forerunner of this phenomenon was Ban Biao 班彪 with his rhapsody Beizheng fu 北征賦 “Northern campaign”. This rhapsody is concerned with common affairs, and not any more with the glorious rituals at the court, and therefore is an excellent example of the trend to write “lesser rhapsodies” (xiaofu) rather than “greater rhapsodies” (dafu). Zhao Yi’s 趙壹 Cishi jixie fu 刺世嫉邪賦 is a very critical rhapsody that expresses the author’s doubts about any moral principles among the ruling elite. Cai Yong’s Shuxing fu describes not only the mismanagement of the eunuchs and the fights among various parties at the court, but also the sufferings of the common people. Mi Heng 禰衡, writing in the very last decades of the Han period, wrote the Yingwu fu 鸚鵡賦 “The parrots”, in which he explains that he had the feeling to live in a time of imminent disaster. Such a criticism towards the Han period rhapsody was brought forward by the Western Jin 西晉 (265-316) scholar Zhi Yu 摯虞. Although the rhapsody during the Han period experienced an apogee as a very high-standing genre of courtial literature, and, especially in the later phase, was used as a form to express private feelings and social criticism, it was also felt that the genre of the rhapsody had changed from a type of literature mainly expressing reverent admiration of a great cause (qingyi 情義) to a type of literature mainly concerned with an outer shape (xingshi 事形). 589). Emperor Wen 魏文帝 (r. 220-226) of the Cao-Wei dynasty 曹魏 (220-265), as a writer known under his private name Cao Pi 曹丕, has written the literary critique Dianlun 典論, in which he says that “poems and rhapsodies must be beautiful” (shi fu yu li 詩賦欲麗). Rhapsodies ritten in couplets were also called paifu 俳賦 “juggling rhapsodies”. In the early phase the text of rhapsodies was embellished with couplets or paired sentences. In the later phase these paired sentences even became subject to a strict regulation of syllables of four of six, and two sentences were subject to a common rhyme that was even subject to strict phonetic rules. This was a deep stylistic change compared with the high time of rhapsodies during the Han period when rhapsodies were written in a free language with relatively long sentences of a different number of words. This means that beauty is mainly achieved in the right composition of words. This type of literature is much closer to what is today understood as a “poem”, while earlier rhapsodies were actually a type of formalized prose text. Of the Seven Masters of the Jian’an Reign (Jian’an qizi 建安七子), only Wang Can 王粲 used to write in the ancient style of the Han rhapsodies. Except these formalistic criteria, the text of rhapsodies had to consist of flowery and elegant language, an endless stream of detailed descriptions like a garden of flowers or a piece of brocade. Shen Yue 沈約 from the Liang period 梁 (502-557) wrote only in four-syllable verses. Cao Zhi 曹植 (Luoshen fu 洛神賦) and the Jin period master Lu Ji made already extensive use of rhymed sentences and “void” syllables to fill verses and to acheive a fluent and pleasantly harmonious style. Seen from the content, the “greater” rhapsodies (dafu) of the Han period were concerned with the description of capitals, palaces and gardens, with hunts and ritual activities. Rhapsodies of the Jin and the Southern and Northern Dynasties period were “lesser” rhapsodies talking about private emotions and feelings, daily activities and peculiar matters. Their number also increased drastically. Alone from the Jian’an reign 建安 (196-219) more than 150 rhapsodies have survived, of which Cao Zhi had written a third. Xu Ling 徐陵 and Yu Jianwu 庾肩吾 (Xiaoyuan fu 小園賦) finally introduced paired verses. The themes change to descriptions of social circumstances, and not any more great events and rituals at the court. Examples for rhapsodies with a stron emotional context are Wang Can’s Denglou fu 登樓賦 and Cao Zhi’s Luoshen fu. This tendency was deepened by Wei period writers like Ji Kang’s 嵇康 rhapsody Qin fu 琴賦 “The zither”. Examples of Wei and Jin period rhapsodies of this style are Wang Can’s Fuhuai fu 浮淮賦, Ruan Yu’s 阮瑀 Jizheng fu 紀征賦, Xu Gan’s 徐幹 Xizheng fu 西征賦, Chen Lin’s 陳琳 Wujun fu 武軍賦, or Cao Pi’s Linwo fu 臨渦賦. He Yan 何晏 created with his Jingfudian fu 景福殿賦 one of the last “great style” rhapsodies that described imperial palaces. Such are Feng fu 風賦 “Wind”, Dayan fu 大言賦, Qin fu 琴賦 “The zither”, Tanqi fu 彈棋賦 “Playing chess”, or Chan fu 蟬賦 “The cicada”. Fu Xuan’s 傅玄 more than 50 rhapsodies of the Western Jin period are excellent pieces that stand in the tradition of earlier writers but are not very original. Other examples for Western Jin “lesser style” rhapsodies are Pan Yue’s 潘岳 Xizheng fu 西征賦, Qiuxing fu 秋興賦, Lu Ji’s Haoshi fu 豪士賦, Wen fu 文賦, Chenggong Sui’s 成公綏 Su fu 嘯賦, or Mu Hua’s 木華 Hai fu 海賦. They are strong in their skill to use beautiful and elegant words. Zuo Si has written one of the last “greater” rhapsodies, the Sandu fu. Among the Eastern Jin period 東晉 (317-420) rhapsodies some fresh and innovative pieces are to be found, like Yuan Hong’s 袁宏 Dongzheng fu 東征賦, Guo Pu’s 郭璞 Jiang fu 江賦, Sun Chuo’s 孫綽 You Tiantaishan fu 游天臺山賦 and Tao Yuanming’s 陶淵明 rhapsodies Xianqing fu 閒情賦 and Ganshi buyu fu 感士不遇賦. During the Tang period 唐 (618-907) the state examinations were introduced as one mode to gain candidates for state offices. The examinations required that examinees were able to write rhapsodies. The rhapsody Pei fu lao liu Han Gaozu fu 沛父老留漢高祖賦 by Wang Qi 王棨, for instance, was written in eight stanzas that exclusively make use of eight rhymes, and no more. In the examination curriculum these rhapsodies were called lüfu “rhymed rhapsodies” because they had to be written in the refined style of the couplet texts, with a strong emphasis on sound, verse, and rhythm. Rhapsodies had first been used in state examinations during the Sui period 隋 (581-618). At that time there were not yet any rules for the composition of rhymed or rhythmic verses in rhapsodies. One of the earliest examples of a verse-rhapsody is Wang Bo’s 王勃 Han wu qi feng fu 寒梧棲鳳賦 that instrumentalized the rhymes yu 孤, qing 清, ye 夜 and yue 月. Feng Jian’s 馮鑒 book Wenti zhiyao 文體指要 from the Five Dynasties period 五代 (907-960) about literary genres (quoted in Wu Ceng’s 吳曾 Nenggaizhai manlu 能改齋漫錄) says that in the early Tang there still no strict rules for lüfu texts. From this example it can be seen that the use of lüfu was not restricted to the state examinations, but was very popular among writers and literati. Wang Qiu’s 王丘 Qifu 旗賦 “The flag” is the earliest surviving example of this kind of literature, with eight rhymes. It seems that from 714 on the writings of rhymed rhapsodies became part and parcel of the examinations (as shifu 試賦 “examination rhapsodies”). The number of rhymes ranged between 2 and 17, yet in some cases it was sufficient to use a tone pitch in the sense of a rhyme. In later years more and more rules and restrictions were invented, even for the content: It was prescribed that the themes of a rhapsody were to be taken from the four categories of literature. Rhymed rhapsodies became so popular that even high-standing writers like Bai Juyi 白居易, his brother Bai Xingjian 白行簡, Jia Su 賈餗, Wang Qi 王起 and Huang Tao 黃滔 professed in the writing of lüfu rhapsodies, yet experts rate their quality as mediocre. This pattern was even decreed in an edict by Emperor Taizong 宋太宗 (r. 976-997) of the Song dynasty 宋 (960-1279) in 984. Similar to the infamous eight-legged essay (baguwen 八股文) that was required during the examinations of the Ming 明 (1368-1644) and Qing 清 (1644-1911) periods, lüfu rhapsodies were never a commonly used type of literature, but they only served as an instrument in the examinations. The Ming period scholar Xu Shiceng 徐師曾 even says in his book Wenti mingbian 文體明辨 that the literary quality of the rhapsodies went down with the invention of the lüfu. 589) and was then fully used from the Sui period on. When eight rhymes were used, it was prescribed that they alternated between a level tone (ping 平) and a dropping tone (ze 仄). This development is congruent to the “return” to a plain, simple and unadorned language that was called guwen 古文 “old-style literature” (today called guwen yundong 古文運動 “ancient style movement”). In his book Gufu bianti 古賦辨體 the Yuan period 元 (1279-1368) scholar Zhu Yao 祝堯 explains that there were during the Song period basically two types of writing, namely rhymed or “paired” writings (paiti 俳體), and plain-style writings (wenti 文體). Rhapsodies belonged to the latter category. The literary movement to go back to a simple style of writings had already been initiated by mid-Tang period writers like Han Yu 韓愈 and Liu Zongyuan 柳宗元. Prose rhapsodies (wenfu) were created during the Song period as a reaction to the overloaded couplet style was was made use of in the lüfu “rhymed rhapsodies” of the Tang and early Song periods. Some of their writings are in fact rhapsodies written in the ancient style of the Han period, but their titles do not include the word “rhapsody” (Jinxue jie 進學解, Wenda 答問, She yu zhe dui Zhi Bo 設漁者對智伯) because the contemporary understanding of what a rhapsody is, was different. During the early Song period writers of the Xikun School 西崑派 continued using the rhymed style for rhapsodies, but the influential writer Ouyang Xiu 歐陽修 supported the “ancient literature” movement and so contributed to the decline of the rhymed rhapsody. The oldest Tang period rhapsody written in the ancient, simple style was Epanggong fu 阿房宮賦 by Du Mu 杜牧. His most important writing in this field was the Qiusheng fu 秋聲賦. Su Shi 蘇軾 later also wrote rhapsodies in the ancient style, the two most famous of which were called Qian Chibi fu 前赤壁賦 and Hou Chibi fu 後赤壁賦. These early Song period wenfu rhapsodies are characterized by description of landscape, the expression of emotions, the narration of actions, and the discussion of certain themes. Their authors can be credited with the merit to have led back the rhapsody into the genre of prose writings, and away from poetry. While stylistic patterns were retained, the wording was perceived as missing the attractiveness of poems. On the other hand, the literary quality of Song period prose rhapsodies is assessed as below their Han period forerunners. Yuan period persons like Zhu Yao felt a kind of inconsistency in the hybrid form of the prose rhapsody that was neither real prose, nor poetry. This impression might have contributed to the gradual disinterest of writers into the genre of rhapsodies after the end of the Song period.

For instance, during the Tang Dynasty (618-907), known for its prosperity and cultural openness, Hanfu became more diverse and vibrant, reflecting the dynasty’s cosmopolitan nature. Chinese cloth shoes has a history of more than 3000 years; and, although cloth shoes are rare in urban areas of China nowadays, this form of shoes remain an important irreplaceable aspect of Chinese along with Confucianism and Buddhism. Chinese embroideries have reflected and expressed the subtle changes in aesthetic concepts, cultural traditions, ethics and morals of the Chinese people throughout the millennia. Basic embroideries patterns tend to be flowers, birds, animals, scenery, and figures from traditional Chinese opera; it can also be decorated with more auspicious patterns such lotus seeds, which symbolizes the birth of a child, pomegranate which symbolized multiple offspring, and the Longfei fengwu (Chinese: 龙飞凤舞; pinyin: lóngfēifèngwǔ; lit. According to the popular Chinese tale, Jinguo Xie《晋国鞋》, literally ‘Jin state shoes’, Jin Xiangong expanded his territory by merging ten vassal states in 606 BC; and to immortalize his cultural and military achievements in the mind of the general population, he ordered that all women’s shoes had to depict ten fruits or flower patterns; this patterns could include pomegranate blossoms, peach blossoms, grapes, etc; he also ordered that all civilian women had to wear the Shiguoxie (Chinese: 十果鞋; lit. Chinese cloth shoes (中国布鞋; zhōngguó bùxié); the xiuhuaxie are deeply rooted in Chinese culture and are characterized by its use of elaborate and colourful Chinese embroideries to create pattern on the shoes (including the shoe cover from heal to toe, the sole of the shoes, and even the shoe padding). It was also popular to wear Hufu. What interesting phenomena have appeared in the design of modern Hanfu? In modern times, straight sleeves are also widely used in the design of Hanfu, becoming an important component of Hanfu culture. Modern hanfu dresses also accentuate the natural curves in women since they are fitting. Luckily, now I have a pink hanfu and I can even wear it to work. The zhisun is described as being of a single colour. Besides, every clothing in sankeng has its own terminology, such as the term “dog short”, “honor student” and “furyō” being used to describe the length of JK uniform skirts, and “jsk” (jumper skirt) and “op” (one piece) referring to sleeveless and sleeveless Lolita dresses respectively. The popularity of the baoyi bodai style was very high, and it eventually replaced the Indian-style clothing (i.e. sanghati) which used to be depicted on the Buddha. Shenyi (one-piece clothing) and Mianfu (a religious court dress of ancient emperors and officials) emerged in the Eastern Zhou period (770 – 221 BC). Zhou Fangying (2021-11-30). “什么是”三坑”？为什么带上这俩字的集合店能屡获投资？”. The sankeng girls are categorized into “single trap”, “double traps”, and “three traps” based on their preferences for these types of clothes, and consumers who do not know any types of clothing from sankeng are referred to as “earthmen”. Zhou Jie (2020-07-15). “把自我穿在身上，情愿沉”三坑”！”. The Song dynasty gaitou (蓋頭), also known as mianyi (面衣; veils or “facial clothes”), follows the style of the Tang dynasty weimao; the gaitou was worn by women when riding donkeys and horses or when they would walk on the streets. Song dynasty beizi, 12th century. The fashion of wearing weimao eventually declined and disappeared in the 8th century before being revived in the 10th century in the Song dynasty. A Ming dynasty portrait illustrating a man wearing zhiduo, woman wearing banbi. It is likely that the practice of wearing veiled hats, which was continued by these Song dynasty women, was due to them being unaware of its foreign and masculine origins. In the Song dynasty, some scholar officials, such as Sima Guang, advocated that women should cover their faces when going out. If you’d like to study Chinese culture and language in China, check out our Chinese language school in Yangshuo, China! The traditional handicraft of making xiuhuaxie is fully indigenous to China, having been created by Chinese people since the ancient times, and combines Chinese shoe culture and the art of Chinese embroidery. The traditional social division of labour in ancient China has been based on the concept of Nangeng Nüzhi (Chinese: 男耕女织; pinyin: nángēng nǚzhī; lit. By merging ancient aesthetics with current trends, modern Hanfu retains its cultural significance while staying relevant. In Japan, modern Japanese fashion history might be conceived as a gradual westernization of Japanese clothes; both the woolen and worsted industries in Japan originated as a product of Japan’s re-established contact with the West in the early Meiji period (1850s-1860s). Before the 1860s, Japanese clothing consisted entirely of kimono of a number of varieties.

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The “Bamboo Grace” Hanfu set comprises three distinct pieces: a long shirt, a camisole, and a pleated skirt. Each component is designed with meticulous attention to detail, ensuring a harmonious blend of cultural heritage and contemporary aesthetics. The long shirt, crafted from lightweight and breathable fabric, is adorned with delicate bamboo leaf prints, exuding a refined and graceful aura. Its flowing silhouette and subtle elegance make it a standout piece. Its simple yet elegant design enhances the overall sophistication of the ensemble. Beneath the shirt, male hanfu the black camisole provides a sleek and stylish contrast. The camisole is versatile, comfortable, and perfect for layering, making it a practical choice for various occasions. The pleats add a dynamic and structured look, providing movement and fluidity with every step. This skirt is not only fashionable but also designed to offer comfort and ease of wear, suitable for everyday activities. The black pleated skirt, another key element of this Hanfu set, complements the shirt beautifully. One of the standout features of the “Bamboo Grace” Hanfu set is its versatility and suitability for summer wear. The lightweight materials and breezy design ensure you stay cool and comfortable. Paired with the right accessories, this set becomes an ideal choice for shopping trips, casual gatherings, or any event where you want to make a lasting impression.

At 12 a.m., the lights are still on at Zhi Yue Hanfu Studio. Lan Xiu said, one of the founders of Zhi Yue Hanfu. She took out a tape measure and measured on the finished hanfu garment. Lan Xiu and others founded Zhi Yue Traditional Clothing in 2018, whose hanfu product patterns and shapes are mainly based on cultural heritage materials as reference, insisting on focusing on original hanfu development. Lan Xiu’s team has been deeply rooted in the hanfu industry for many years since the early days of its creation, and now has its own hanfu studio in Chengdu and its own hanfu factory in Guizhou. She mentioned that Zhi Yue has not been investing much in publicity, and that they have participated as judges in almost all of the past few major national hanfu shows, so this year has been an extraordinary year for them as well. Lan Xiu majored in art during her college years, and after graduation, she started her own clothing factory. Through Lan Xiu and her team’s more than 10 years of experience in making hanfu, she has found that not only domestic hanfu consumers, but also overseas Chinese customers often prefer the traditional forms of hanfu they produce, “It shows me that no matter where you are, no matter how different the environment you grow up in. There is a consensus among Chinese people around the world about hanfu, and that is to preserve what is most traditional about us, so Zhi Yue Hanfu’s design philosophy has always been to insist on restoring hanfu from heritage materials.” Lan Xiu said. As one of the earlier manufacturers of hanfu, chinese traditional dress qipao one of Lan Xiu’s factory’s businesses at the beginning was making costumes for the drama crew. Lan Xiu recalls that at that time, the hanfu industry was relatively uncommon, so her factory had a wide range of business, making not only hanfu, but also other traditional costumes. But it was through meeting a group of friends in the hanfu circle early on that her life quietly took a turn. Perhaps it was the China-chic trend that ignited her dream of Chinese costume. In 2018, cheongsam lingerie Lan Xiu and her partners hit it off and started their own hanfu brand. As a team with more than 10 years of experience in research, design and production of hanfu, the positioning of Zhi Yue Hanfu was clear from the beginning. Despite its extensive experience in garment making and hanfu research, Zhi Yue Hanfu still had a lot of difficulties in the early stages of opening. Lan Xiu wondered about the future development of hanfu, both the technology and the design will definitely see some adjustments and changes, but the most important part of hanfu, that is, the shape of hanfu, must retain this traditional charm, which is the core competitiveness. Looking back on the early days of the business, Lan Xiu was overwhelmed with emotion. At that time, she ran all over the country just to find an ideal hanfu processing factory. These events are actually guiding companies to pay more attention to originality, which means emphasizing the core competitiveness of their products.

In recent years, there has been a remarkable revival of Hanfu among Gen Z, marking a significant cultural trend. There are two size of Beizi: short one is crown rump length and long one means the length cover to knees. Song court customs often use red color for their garments with black leather shoe and hats. Zhongjing Guan (忠靖冠) Loyal and stable crown. An officer of the first grade wore a translucent red ball (originally ruby); second grade, solid red ball (originally coral); third grade, translucent blue ball (originally sapphire); fourth grade, solid blue ball; fifth grade, translucent white ball (originally crystal); sixth grade, solid white ball (originally mother of pearl). For footwear, white socks and black cloth shoes (with white soles) are the norm, but in the past, shoes may have a front face panel attached to the tip of the shoes. They are often brightly colored with vermillion and blue. The coat sleeves are often deeper than the shenyi to create a more voluminous appearance. A painting of Tang Dynasty women playing with a dog, by artist Zhou Fang, traditional chinese hanfu 8th century. Where previously Chinese women had been restricted by the old Confucian code to closely wrapped, concealing outfits, female dress in the Tang Dynasty gradually became more relaxed, less constricting and even more revealing. During the Republican period in the 1920s qipao dress suddenly became fashionable for women and was widely adopted. The sleeves could be wide or narrow, and the shape of the cuff could vary depending on styles and time period. Styles from the Tang, Song, and Ming periods are the most popular; flowing robes in beautiful shades, embellished with intricate designs and embroidery. Dongpo jin (東坡巾) Named after and supposedly worn by Su Dongpo, but originated from Five Dynasties period. Today, one might find hanfu spun with eco-friendly fibers, or patterns that pay homage to classical art intermingling with designs that capture the pulsating life of modern cities. A Sung dynasty mural reflecting a scene of the daily life of the occupant, found in a tomb unearthed in Tengfeng city. Mural from the Dahuting Tomb (Chinese: 打虎亭汉墓, Pinyin: Dahuting Han mu) of the late Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220 AD), located in Zhengzhou, Henan province, China, was excavated in 1960-1961 and contains vault-arched burial chambers decorated with murals showing scenes of daily life. Authentic Song Dynasty Hanfu can be identified by analyzing stitching methods, historical accuracy in design and fabric, and fabric quality. Some features of Tang Clothing carried into the Song Dynasty Such as court customs. Imperial Portrait of the empress and wife to Emperor Qinzong of (1100-1161) of the Song Dynasty in China. Many of Song Clothing goes into Yuan and Ming. Such clothes were decorated with patterns of peony, camellia, plum blossom, and lily, etc. Song Empress often had three to five distinctive jewelry-like marks on their face (two side of the cheek, men’s hanfu other two next to the eyebrows and one on the forehead). This attempt to restore the entire clothing system back to the way it was during Tang Dynasty was a gesture from the founding emperor that signified the restoration of Han tradition and cultural identity after defeating the Yuan dynasty. Chinese shirt or Chinese pants is cheongsam and qipao made Chinese clothes, Asian clothes and oriental clothes Asian clothing and oriental clothing large cloak sewn Chinese dress, Asian dress and oriental dress the Chinese clothing hem Chinese costume, hanfu clothing Asian costume and oriental costume create very long deep sleeves used in very formal rituals. The entire ensemble of clothing can consist of many complex layers and look very elaborate. Formal wear are usually long wear with long sleeves except Xuanduan. The xuanduan is basically a simplified version of full court dress of the officials and the nobility. The mangfu was derived from the longpao (simplified Chinese: 龙袍; traditional Chinese: 龍袍; pinyin: lóngpáo; lit. Those in academia or officialdom have distinctive gowns (known as changfu 常服 in court dress terms). Jifu (Chinese: 吉服; lit. The typical men’s robe had round collars and was fastened with sashes. This varies over the ages but they are typically round collared gowns closed at the front. Generally, this form of wear is suitable for meeting guests or going to meetings and other special cultural days. This form of dress is mostly used in sacrificial ceremonies such as Ji Tian (祭天) and Ji Zu (祭祖), etc., but is also appropriate for state occasions. Nevertheless, the Japanese appointed Puyi as Chief Executive (later Emperor) of the new state. Neither Taoist priests nor Buddhist monks were required to wear the queue by the Qing; they continued to wear their traditional hairstyles, completely shaved heads for Buddhist monks, and long hair in the traditional Chinese topknot for Taoist priests.

The Tang Dynasty, often regarded as a golden era of Chinese history, represents a pinnacle in both intellectual and material achievements of ancient China. This period witnessed the flourishing of Hanfu clothing, characterized by its elaborate designs and luxurious materials. Tang Dynasty attire is renowned for its extensive use of floral and plant motifs, which were lively, symmetrical, and intricately detailed. These patterns often incorporated wavy lines, creating a sense of movement and fluidity. Realistic depictions of flora and fauna replaced the previously dominant celestial and mythical themes, although traditional motifs like dragons and phoenixes remained prevalent. The overall design ethos of Tang clothing mirrored the era’s spirit of openness and artistic freedom. The Tang Dynasty’s clothing styles reflected the period’s economic prosperity and cultural openness, bolstered by thriving foreign trade and long-standing peace. As the epicenter of economic and cultural exchange in Asia, Tang China assimilated and integrated elements from Indian and Persian cultures, enriching its own cultural tapestry. Tang Dynasty clothing was marked by its opulence and openness. This synthesis is evident in various art forms, including murals, stone carvings, silk embroidery, and, notably, in the elaborate designs of Tang Dynasty clothing. It was not uncommon for women to wear garments that bared the chest and arms, a style reminiscent of modern evening wear but more modest in its coverage. The famous Dunhuang frescoes provide vivid depictions of Tang women’s attire, showcasing high buns, open chests adorned with red silk, thin yellow blouses, long green skirts, and red belts. Women’s fashion, in particular, featured bright colors and lightweight, even translucent materials. The diversity of Tang Dynasty clothing is striking, with numerous totems of mythical creatures and animals, alongside intricate floral and arboreal embroidery. These elaborate designs significantly influenced subsequent dynasties’ garment designs and continue to inspire modern fashion, blending traditional aesthetics with contemporary styles. In the Tang Dynasty, golden yellow was reserved exclusively for the emperor and the royal family, symbolizing imperial authority. Additionally, it was fashionable to incorporate paintings by renowned artists into one’s attire, transforming clothing into a canvas for fine art. To distinguish government officials, specific colors like pure purple, red, cyan, and green were designated for their uniforms. Other colors, however, were freely used. Simpler, solid colors were preferred by scholars and intellectuals. Among the general populace, a vibrant array of colors was common, with some women’s dresses featuring more than five hues. Tang Dynasty clothing utilized various materials, including silk, cotton, linen, and wool, with silk being the most favored for its lightness, softness, and comfort. The Tang Dynasty’s clothing designs were not just a reflection of the era’s prosperity but also a testament to its innovative spirit. The silk weaving technology of the time was highly advanced, allowing for intricate embroidery and detailed patterns tailored to individual preferences by skilled artisans. The integration of foreign influences and the move towards more naturalistic designs represented a significant departure from previous eras, fostering a unique and enduring aesthetic. This period’s fashion legacy continues to be celebrated and reinterpreted in modern times, demonstrating the timeless appeal of Tang Dynasty artistry.

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The settlement currency shall be based on respective ticketing platforms. Late returns will incur a penalty of 30% of the deposit for each day overdue. If the return exceeds 72 hours, the entire deposit will be forfeited and considered as a purchase of the clothing. All clothing and accessories must be returned on the day of rental. Before purchasing the experience ticket, it is recommended to contact our official WeChat account or Email for reservation of hanfu styling and photography services. Purchase the experience ticket through the official ticketing platform – Damai Ticketing once the reservation and designated costumes are pencil marked. To secure the reservation, qipao dress plus size kindly send the ticket confirmation number to our official WeChat account or Email. Read the Pre-experience Notice and Terms and Conditions. Approach the reception counter of Han Fu Experience 15mins prior to the experience time reserved. Conduct the briefing session, costume check, sign the form of “Costume Loan and Declaration of Service” and pay for the deposit of costume rental. Experience is only limited to the services listed on your ticket. It may deemed to have given up the right of experience if the guest is late for over 15 mins. Due to limit of session and service, Reservation will be automatically cancelled if no confirmation receive in 2 hours after reservation is pencilly marked. All kids with age of 12 and below must be accompanied by an adult. It’s the customer’s own responsibilities to determine the suitability of joining the experience. Individual with physical discomfort, sensitive skins, pregnant women and etc are not suitable. Ticket cannot be refunded, exchanged, cancelled or rescheduled after purchase under any circumstance. Also its advised not to use the escalator with Han Fu costume. Due to safety concerns, its recommended not to join the VR Experience with Han Fu costume. Deposit of costume rental and signing the form of “Han Fu Rental Consent Form” will be required onsite. Full Terms and Conditions of Han Fu Experience applied. Link to the Terms & Conditions.

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Events in the year 2002 in China. March 25 – Shenzhou 3, an unmanned Chinese spacecraft, was launched. August 22 – In China, the Dongting Lake floods Yueyang, forcing the evacuation of 600,000 people; the crest of the flooding from the Yangtze River is expected Sunday. Floods and landslides have killed nearly 1000 people in China, pink short cheongsam 200 in the Hunan province. July 19 – Hail kills 25 and injures hundreds in the Chinese province of Henan. November 8 – President of the People’s Republic of China Jiang Zemin announced several key policies at the 16th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party in Beijing. Although Marxism-Leninism would remain the official ideology of China, entrepreneurs and people in unconventional occupations, who are building “socialism with Chinese characteristics”, would have a voice in establishing Communist Party ideology. China successfully launches Shenzhou 4, the fourth unmanned launch of the Chinese Shenzhou spacecraft. China State Grid, a largest utility brand of world, was established. Ynhanfu organization is founded in Kunming, Yunnan Province. November 15 – Hu Jintao becomes General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party. Xinhua Yunnan Channel. Xinhua Yunnan Channel. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.

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Hanfu comprises all traditional clothing classifications of the Han Chinese with a recorded history of more than three millennia. Each succeeding dynasty produced their own distinctive dress codes, reflecting the socio-cultural environment of the times. Hanfu was a symbol of traditional Chinese culture. Tämä on hakutulos, ei mainos. It also had a far-reaching influence on the clothing in other neighboring Asian countries, such as the Japanese kimono, the Korean hanbok, and the Vietnamese Áo giao lĩnh. Chinese clothing started to be adopted by the Japanese in the 5th century. Tämä on hakutulos, ei mainos. From its rich history, exquisite designs, making and layering to how it differs from the Japanese kimono and Korean hanbok. Unravelling the fascinating world of Chinese traditional clothing, hanfu. From a niche hobby to a nationwide trend, a look at how China’s ancient hanfu grew into a 10.2-million-wide customer base. Tämä on hakutulos, horse face skirt ei mainos. 4 Well-Known Traditional Chinese Clothes Types. The Hanfu, Zhongshan suit (Mao suit), Tang suit, and cheongsam (qipao) are the four most distinctive types of traditional Chinese clothing. 1. Hanfu – The Most Traditional Chinese Clothing. Hanfu (汉服) refers to the traditional clothing worn by Han Chinese for over 4,000 years. It’s characterized by flowing robes, wide sleeves, and intricate patterns. Unlike the more commonly known qipao , Hanfu has a richer, older history that represents different dynasties and social classes. Tämä on hakutulos, ei mainos. Tämä on hakutulos, ei mainos. After the Qing, Chinese people had adopted western style clothes and the traditional Han people’s clothes never returned in force. In recent years, there has been a revival of traditional Chinese attires. Some young people engaged in promoting Hanfu through the Internet social networking. Tämä on hakutulos, ei mainos. Chinese hanfu, the traditional attire of the Han Chinese people, is an exquisite and graceful form of clothing that holds a significant place in Chinese history and culture. The hanfu dress is typically characterized by loose, flowing robes, wide sleeves, and a focus on natural fabrics such as silk and linen. Tämä on hakutulos, ei mainos. Hanfu is a direct embodiment of Chinese culture, reflecting the cultural orientation or belonging of the wearer, as clothing and one’s spiritual demeanor are closely intertwined. Tämä on hakutulos, ei mainos. Distinguished by its flowing robes, elegant silhouettes, and intricate designs, Hanfu holds deep cultural significance and represents the essence of Chinese traditions. Hanfu (汉服) refers to the traditional clothing of the Han Chinese people, a cultural heritage with over 4,000 years of history. Tämä on hakutulos, ei mainos. Hanfu has become a significant driver of tourism in China, with an increasing number of travelers seeking out locations that offer immersive experiences related to traditional attire.

A turban (from Persian دولبند, dolband; via Middle French turbant) is a type of headwear based on cloth winding. Featuring many variations, it is worn as customary headwear by people of various cultures. A keski is a type of turban, a long piece of cloth roughly half the length of a traditional “single turban”, but not cut and sewn to make a double-width “Double Turban” (or Double Patti). Wearing turbans is common among Sikh men (Dastar), and infrequently women. They are also worn by Hindu monks. The headgear also serves as a religious observance, including among Shia Muslims, who regard turban-wearing as Sunnah mu’akkadah (confirmed tradition). Southeast Asia, the Middle East, the Balkans, the Caucasus, Central Asia, North Africa, West Africa, East Africa, and amongst some Turkic peoples in Russia. The turban is also the traditional headdress of Sufi scholars. Additionally, turbans have often been worn by nobility, regardless of religious background. Muslim men might wear the turban (Imama) during prayer. Turbans come in a variety of styles, and the method of wrapping can vary. Some turbans are simple and functional, while others are elaborate and serve ceremonial or formal purposes. The way a turban is tied can indicate the wearer’s social or marital status, religious affiliation, or regional identity. Aside from cultural and religious significance, turbans are also practical headwear. In some regions with hot climates, turbans can help keep the head cool. The earliest depiction of a turban can be found on a Mesopotamian sculpture dating back to 2350 B.C. They provide protection from the sun, dust, and wind. Greek-speaking descendants in the early 20th century. The Islamic prophet, Muhammad, who lived 570-632, wore an Imama turban. The style of turban he introduced was a cap with a cloth tied around it; this headwear is known as Imama and was emulated by Muslim kings and scholars throughout history. Many Muslim men choose to wear green, because it represents paradise, especially among followers of Sufism. Shia clerics today wear white turbans unless they are descendants of Muhammad or sayyid, in which case they wear a black turban. In parts of North Africa, where blue is common, the shade of a turban can signify the tribe of the wearer. Contemporary turbans come in many shapes, sizes and colours. Turban wearers in North Africa, the Horn of Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia, South Asia, and Philippines (Sulu) usually wind it anew for each wearing, using long strips of cloth. The cloth is usually under five meters in length. Some elaborate South Asian turbans may also be permanently formed and sewn to a foundation. Turbans are commonly worn in East Africa by Muslim clerics, as well as Ethiopian Orthodox Christian priests. Turbans can be very large or quite modest depending upon region and culture. The headwrap has a long presence in the region, where it was frequently sported by Sultans, Wazirs, and other aristocratic and court officials. Among these nobles are the Somali Sultans Deria Hassan of the Isaaq Sultanate, Mohamoud Ali Shire of the Warsangali, Osman Mahamuud of the Majeerteen Sultanate, and Yusuf Ali Kenadid and Ali Yusuf Kenadid of the Sultanate of Hobyo. It is typically worn with a maccawiis (sarong) or a jellabiya. Prominent historical Islamic leaders in the region that are known to have worn turbans include Sheikh Abadir Umar Ar-Rida. These turbans thus function as crowns. Among Tumbuka nobility in Malawi and Zambia, black turbans (mphumphu) in various styles are worn by the king Chikulamayembe and all chiefs below him. The practice of Tumbuka nobles wearing black turbans dates back to the late 18th century when a Swahili/Nyamwezi trades man gifted all chiefs he encouraged in the tumbuka territories black cloth, some of which he would wrap around their heads. In most countries of the Arabian Peninsula, a plain or checkered scarf (called ghutrah, shumagh or chefiyah), not usually described as a turban is often worn, though the Arabic Emamah tradition remains strong in Oman (see Sultan Qaboos of Oman), Sudan and some parts of the Arabian peninsula. The colored turban, Ghabanah, is a common inherited cultural turban in the regions of Hijaz, and it still the inhabitants costume of Mecca, Madinah and Jeddah in particular. Ghabanah is the heritage uniform headwear for traders and the general community categories of the prestigious and middle-class, with the exception of religious scholars who have had their special turbans distinctiveness predominately white. In Yemen, the traditional Muslim Imama is worn. The Hijazi turbans with different shapes are the extension of the turban of Islamic prophet Muhammad who lived in Mecca and Madinah. There are several types of Ghabanah, perhaps the most famous is the yellow (Halabi), made in Aleppo, characterized by different inscriptions, and wrapped on a dome-like hollow taqiyah or a Turkish fez or kalpak cap. Moreover, the white ghutrah or shumagh are commonly wrapped in Hamdaniyah style, which is also the shape of turbans in the United Arab Emirates. Colorful turbans called Masar are the national headwear costume in Oman, and also are common in some regions in south of Yemen and Hadhramaut. Turbans are part of the national dress in Afghanistan. They are used more widely than elsewhere in the Muslim world, and are worn in a wide range of styles and colours. In the Uruzgan Province, male government employees are required to wear the Imama. In the country’s south-east, turbans are wrapped loosely and largely, whereas in Kabul the garment tends to be smaller and tighter. Different ethnic groups in Afghanistan wear different lungees with different patterns, way of styling it, fabric, stripes, lengths and colouration. In traditional Afghan society, a related piece of extra cloth called a patu serves practical purposes, such as for wrapping oneself against the cold, to sit on, to tie up an animal or to carry water in the cap. Males of all ethnic backgrounds generally avoid wearing bright-coloured turbans that draw attention to oneself and prefer wearing simple colors that are white, off white, gray, dark blue and black. Navy blue is a color common more to the Sikh Nihangs, it signifies war and service, while black is associated with resistance, orange with sacrifice and martyrdom, and white with wisdom, old age, death, or peace; however during times of peace, or rallies for peace, people will usually be in war gear, blue. It is also traditionally worn by members of the Taliban. In India, the turban is referred to as a pagri, meaning the headdress that is worn by men and is manually tied. For example, the Mysore Peta, the Marathi pheta, and the Puneri Pagadi. There are several styles, which are specific to the wearer’s region or religion, and they vary in shape, size and colour. The pagri is a symbol of honour and respect everywhere it is worn. It is a common practice to honour important guests by offering them one to wear. Colours are often chosen to suit the occasion or circumstance: for example saffron, associated with valour or sacrifice (martyrdom), is worn during rallies; white, associated with peace, is worn by elders; and pink, associated with spring, is worn during that season or for marriage ceremonies. In World War II, some soldiers in the Indian Army were required to wear a turban. In Rajasthan state of India these turbans, known as Pagri or Safa, is a traditional headwear that is an integral part of the state’s cultural identity. It is typically made from cotton, silk, or a blend of fabrics and can vary in length. The Safa (Parna) is usually around 1 to 4.5 meters long, while the Pagri can be about 10 meters. Some of the most popular turbans in Rajasthan includes Jodhpuri safa. In Pakistan, the turban is in widespread use, especially among the rural population. It is worn in different styles and colours across the country, varying by region, e.g. in the north of the country, black and white turbans are preferred. The turban most commonly found in Pakistan is white and crestless, and worn commonly in the Pashtun belt, while in rural Punjab and Sindh, it is mostly worn by elders or feudal lords. The turban is called either a pagri or pag by Punjabis, while the Pashtuns and Sindhi’s call it patkay/patko. The Baloch people are famous for their large turbans that are worn with both ends hanging from the sides or as a loop that rests above the chest. These turbans are made with many feet of cloth that are wrapped around a cap and are mostly made with white cloth. In Bangladesh, the turban is known as pagri, or fagri in Chittagong and Sylhet. The most common colour worn is white, and generally it is the Sufis that wear green turbans. It is also worn by elders in rural areas as a symbol of honour and respect. The turban in Nepal is commonly worn in rural areas by males. The rural turban is called either a Pagdi or Pheta. All types of coloured clothes were used for Pheta. It is common among farmers. Historically, Gorkhali nobleman used to wear white turban called Shirpau awarded by the King of Nepal. It was common among aristocrats in other contemporary kingdoms. For example; Sardar Ram Krishna Kunwar was awarded with 22 pairs of headgear called Shirpau by the Gorkhali monarch Maharajadhiraj Prithvi Narayan Shah. Rulers and vassal lords also adapted a crest to the white turban. In Indonesia, the turban-styled headdress for men is traditionally called iket (from Javanese and Sundanese language). It literally means ‘to tie’, the main way to attach the fabric over the head of the wearer. Although there are different ways of folding and tying the fabric over the head, and therefore different shapes of iket, they can in general show the social level of the wearer and the area of origin. It is made of a square or rectangular batik cloth that is folded diagonally to form a triangle. In other parts of Java, for practicality the iket has developed into fixed-form headdresses, called blangkon in Central Java and Yogyakarta and bendo in West Java. Javanese might be influenced by turban-wearing Gujarati traders who came to Indonesia more than 500 years ago. In East Java and Bali, the headdress is still made in traditional way and it is called udeng. The batik cloth is made stiff through a process of molding, attaching to stiff paper, and sewing. Similar to iket, blangkon and bendo come with some variations of shapes based on the areas of origin and the wearer’s social rank. The most common turban worn by Muslim Filipino women is called the kombong, the traditional style of hijab by Muslim women in the Davao area of Mindanao (associated with Maranao, Maguindanao, and Iranun speakers). In the Philippines, the turban has a long history associated with native Austronesian (Malayo-Polynesian) cultures, and reinforced with significant cultural influences from the rest of Maritime Southeast Asia (especially Java, Borneo and Sumatra), India, Arabia, China, and Persia, through the different epochs of Philippine history. The kombong is worn as a headwrap-turban, and is paired with the tudong or headscarf, which is ordinarily draped over the chest or shoulder, but worn over the top of the kombong for Islamic prayer, or for providing extra veiling when out of the house or barangay. The wearer of the white kombong will hence be referred to as Hadja, a title given to any Muslim woman who has been on the Hajj. A white kombong signifies that its wearer has been on the pilgrimage to Makkah, known as Hajj. The putong was historically worn by men of nearly all major ethnolinguisitc groups in the country, such as the Bisaya, Tagalog and Ilocano, before the mid-17th century, but had waned in lieu of the western hat since the coming of Catholicism in the north and subsequent colonization under Spanish and then American rule. For men, the most common turban worn is called a putong, potong or pudong. Blue was worn for the maginoo nobility class only, red putong for the maharlika warrior class, and other colors like yellow or natural hue for the timawa freeman/raiding caste, and alipin slave castes, respectively. In the precolonial period, pudong were dyed into different distinct colors to signify the social caste of its wearer. Today, the turban is worn primarily by Muslim Filipino men, especially by Imams and members of the ulama (Islamic scholars), but is also worn by non-Muslim groups too. Among Muslims, the putong can signify the status of its wearer. Muslim men and imams who have been on the Hajj pilgrimage have traditionally opted to wear the keffiyeh as a putong instead. This practice has waned in recent years due to younger jihadist militant groups in the south of the country using keffiyeh as signifiers that they are members of the extremist takfiri groups. This is usually bought in Saudi Arabia before returning to the Philippines, in order to signify that they are Hajji. These putong or turbans can be ornately woven or designed, and act as a status symbol for the wearer. The pre-colonial item of clothing is also worn by non-Muslim Lumad and Cordilleran chiefs and upper class individuals in times of celebration or for specific rituals. In the southern part of the country, in the Sulu archipelago, Tausug and Yakan men wear the pis syabit, an ornate headscarf worn in a manner similar to a turban or bandana. Larger pis syabit are turban like, whereas smaller pis resemble bandanas. As with the other putong found in the Philippines, the size or visual design of the pis indicates the social-status or caste of its wearer. On some Babuyan islands in the far north of the country, the head of the household wears a white turban, the younger males wear a red turban after their 13th birthday. It no longer has religious significance and the origin dates back to the end of the Tondo era (circa 900s – 1589). Most Babuyan settlers fled the Philippines in 1589 when Spain began to invade the Philippines. The three chiefs all wear yellow turbans. The turban was made from a type of bark cloth but now is made from cotton or silk brought over from the Philippines mainland. The turban style head dress is then cut and wrapped around the head, then tucked in front. Initially, they were pieces of fabric that had to be coiled every time, but starting in the 20th century, they were replaced with ready-to-wear versions already coiled. Alongside a variety of hats, turbans were also worn by the majority ethnic Vietnamese, called khăn vấn or khăn đóng in Vietnamese. The khăn vấn was believed to have been influenced by the Cham sometime during the 18th century though similar turbans are worn by surrounding ethnic groups in Northern Vietnam and Southern China, such as the Zhuang, Hmong, and Yi people. In the United Kingdom, turbans have been worn by men and women since the sixth century without ever becoming very common. The common use of turbans on less formal occasions, among gentlemen at the time, reflects that their heads were closely cropped, or shaved, to allow the wearing of the elaborate wigs that were the fashion in Europe in the century from about 1650 to 1750, and when wigs were off, some kind of head cover was useful. Poet Alexander Pope is sometimes depicted wearing a turban, as were other notable men seen in contemporary paintings and illustrations. Now that hats are infrequently worn, turbans too are relatively uncommon. They are worn primarily by women of West Indian descent, Karinas. Some women wear them to make a statement of individuality, such as the British social entrepreneur Camila Batmanghelidjh, who usually wore a colourful matching turban and robe. It is over three meters long and is worn from age 7 onwards, then used as a burial shroud after death. In Northern Albania and some regions of Kosovo, particularly among highlanders, men traditionally wear a long, white turban-like cloth known as a shall or shalla. It is often worn over the qeleshe (plis), the traditional Albanian felt cap, to protect from the elements. The shall is most commonly worn in the Malësia regions and the Rugova highlands of Kosovo, though it is only seen in traditional folk attire and cultural ceremonies. The headwrap’s name is borrowed from sarık, the Turkish word for turban. In Greece, specifically the island of Crete, the men traditionally wear a lightly knitted turban known as a sariki. Today, it may be more commonly known as a kritiko mandili (Cretan kerchief). It is only found in the folklore Cretan dress and not amongst the population, with the exception of older men in remoter, mountainous villages. Taukei indigenous chiefs and priests were known to have worn masi (barkcloth) coverings around their head similar to a turban, called an i-sala. Though not common in daily apparel, turbans are sometimes worn by men ceremonially (often with beards), as a symbol of national identity during celebrations and festivals. However, most of the bulk and shape of the i-sala came from the bushy hair under the cloth. However, before Armenia became a Christian nation, turbans were a common part of the daily apparel, just as in other Middle Eastern countries. Tuareg Berbers, and some northern Berbers, Sahrawi, Songhai, Wodaabe, Fulani, and Hausa peoples of North and West Africa wear varieties of turbans. On the Swahili Coast, turbans were frequently worn by the ruling Omani Sultans of Zanzibar and their retinue. This Tuareg-Berber turban is known as a tagelmust, and is often blue. The Bedouin tribes in North Africa sometimes wear brown-beige, white or orange turbans. Colombian politician Piedad Cordoba was known to wear turbans (or a similar headgear). Tuareg Berbers often veil the face to block dust. Her use of turbans had made her so distinguishable to the point of having earned the nickname “the lady with the turban” in Colombian popular culture. Kurdish people wear a turban, which they call a jamadani. It is worn in many different ways across Iraqi Kurdistan depending on the style of the locality; e.g. the Barzani Kurds are a tribe which wears the turban in a colour (red and white) and style which is typical of their clan. In most parts of South Kurdistan a black-white pattern is used for Jamadani. Mostly, Kurdish turbans consist of a length of striped cloth known as kolāḡī which is wound around a conical hat; the tassels that border the kolāḡī are allowed to hang down over the face. In modern times, many Kurds use black and white Ghutra and roll them into turbans. Turbans have also been a type of headwear worn by women in Western countries. The wearing of such turbans by women in Western societies is less common than it was earlier in the 20th century. They are usually sewn to a foundation, so that they can be donned or removed easily. They can also be tied together to form a rope in emergency rescue situations. Turbans are also sometimes donned to protect hair or as a headwrap for women following cancer treatments that cause hair loss. In popular culture, turbans are also sometimes worn as a fashion statement. For example, chinese traditional dress hanfu American rapper Yeat wears turbans often while being photographed and filmed in public. The Sikh turban, known mainly as the dastar but also the dumalla, is used to show others that they represent the embodiment of Sikh teachings, the love of the Guru and dogma to do good deeds. He also has a song titled “Turban”. The Gurus ensured that both men and women are able to wear a turban, which shows another action of equality. Other Purposes of the turban include protecting Sikhs’ long unshorn hair and keeping it clean. Sikhs do not cut their hair, as a religious observance. As Sikhs form 1.7% of India’s population and 1.5% of Canada’s population, their turbans help identify them. The turban protects the hair and keeps it clean. Turbans were formerly associated with the upper class, and many men in the cultural elite still wear turbans. When he institutionalized the turban as a part of the Sikh identity, Guru Gobind Singh said, “My Sikh will be recognized among millions”. This distinction between the turban-wearing upper class (Sardars) and commoners promoted segregation and elitism. Modern Sikh men mainly wear four kinds of turban: Vattan Wali Turban, Amritsar Shahi Turban, Barnala Shahi and Taksali Dumala. In order to eliminate the class system associated with turbans, Guru Gobind Singh declared each and every Sikh a Sardar. The most common turban colors worn by Sikhs are blue, white and black, although other colors are popular as well. The more traditional Turban styles are the Darbara Singh Dummala, Dastar Bunga (the original turban of the Khalsa) and the Puratan Nok Pagg. Meanings of the turbans are that the white turban means a saintly person leading an exemplary life, and an off-shade color of white means someone is learning in the Sikh religion. The blue turban signifies a mind as broad as the sky with no place for prejudice. The black turban serves as a reminder of the Jallianwala Bagh massacre in 1919, and represents humility. Blue and yellow are particularly prestigious and tend to be worn on religious events such as Vaisakhi. The Basanti or yellow turbans are associated with the revolutionary movement, Sardar Bhagat Singh also wore a yellow turban for this reason. Royal blue is usually worn by those who are learned in the Sikh religion and are patriotic about their traditions and culture. The colour green signifies farmers. The orange turban means courage and wisdom. Akali Nihang Sikhs decorate their blue turbans or Dumalla by wearing small weapons known as shastars in them. The colour Gold symbolizes a sense of calm and healing that helps with anxiety and clearing the mind which significance derives from the Golden temple. The turban’s color may reflect association with a particular group of Sikhs, although none of the popular turban colors are exclusive to any particular group. The preferred color of the Sikh wedding is pink.

All shades of this color from magenta to baby pink is used by families for the joyful occasion. Some prefer red, maroon or orange turbans for the weddings, but pink is so far the most popular. There are traditions associated with some colours, for instance orange and black are often worn at political protest rallies whilst red and pink turbans are worn at weddings and other celebratory events. Turban colors are generally a matter of personal choice in Sikhism, with many Sikh men choosing colors based on fashion or taste, sometimes to match clothes. Cdt. Sarabjot Anand, OCdt. Sarbjeet Nijher and OCdt. In Kenya, the Akurinu, a Christian denomination, wear turbans as religious headgear. Both men and women wear white turbans; children wear tunics. The official name of the denomination is The Kenya Foundation of the Prophets Church, or else Holy Ghost Church. Some Oriental Orthodox churches such as the Coptic Orthodox Church and the Syriac Orthodox Church include turbans in the vestments for the priest. The origin of the word akurinu is not clear. It is said by some to come from the Kikuyu question Mukuri-ni which translates to ‘who is the redeemer? Others say that it comes from the growling sounds made by early adherents to the sect when possessed by the spirit, an act described as gukurina. In his book Facing Mt. Kenya, Jomo Kenyatta states that the akurinu referred to themselves as Arooti(dreamers), people of God. The akurinu identify Joseph Ng’ang’a as the founder of the sect. It was on this ascension that the akurinu say Njeru was instructed to remove all adornments she had worn, throw them into River Nyamindi, and cover her hair. It was Ng’ang’a who ascended Mount Kenya (then known as Mount Kirinyaga) with the first four akurinu prophets – Joseph Kanini, Henry Maina, Philip Mukubwa, and Lilian Njeru. They also claim to have been instructed by God to lift their hands in the air as they pray. These two practices form an integral part of akurinu religious beliefs today. It is sometimes called an Imama. In Islamic cultures, some men wear a turban-style headdress in emulation of Muhammad who is believed to have worn a black or white turban. The head wraps are worn in different ways and called by different names depending on the region and culture. Examples include (Arabic: عمامة `emãmah) in Arabic, and the Dastar (Persian: دستار) in Persian. The most preferred style is the elliptic cylindrical headwrap, with the tail hanging behind. Sufi Muslims often wear a green head wrap around a small cap or the green head wrap alone. Sunni Dawate Islami (which broke away from Dawat-e-Islami in 1992) wear white turbans. In Shi’a Islam, a black head wrap around a small white cap is worn by descendants of Muhammad called Sayyids, and white turbans by other well-educated persons and scholars. In Sudan, large white headdresses connote high social status. Women of Islam typically do not wear turbans, as it is typically considered part of a man’s dress, while women do typically cover their hair as part of hijab. In India and Pakistan the cap is called a topi. Although it is still not as widely accepted by the more conservative Islamic communities. However, just as some Muslim women wear no headcovering, some modern Muslim women wear a turban style covering. The traditional Jewish turban is known as a sudra. When the Jewish High Priest served in the Tabernacle and the Temple in Jerusalem, he wore a head covering called mitznefet מִצְנֶפֶת. This word has been translated as mitre (KJV) or headdress. It was most likely a turban, as the word comes from a root meaning ‘to wrap’. The head covering of the priests was different, being wound to form a cone, called a migbahat. According to the Talmud, the wearing of the turban atoned for the sin of haughtiness on the part of the Children of Israel (B. In the Hebrew Bible, the turban worn by the High Priest was much larger than the head coverings of the priests and wound to make a broad, flat-topped shape resembling the blossom of a flower. The Jews who lived under Arab rule during the Middle Ages, notably in Islamic Spain, wore turbans and headwear not too different from their Muslim counterparts. The Sephardi Chief Rabbi of Israel, also known as Rishon LeZion customarily wears a turban (mitznefet). Mandaean priests wear white turbans called burzinqa. In Hinduism, many Rajputs wear it due to culture. It is called a Pheta. Some married Jewish women wear mitpaḥats as an act of modesty. It is also worn by the Gurjars of Rajasthan. It is a cultural practice driven by the harsh summer months in India especially in the state of Rajasthan. Members of the Bobo Ashanti mansion of the Rastafari movement keep their hair and beards, mainly with their hair in dreadlocks, and they have been wearing turbans over their dreadlocks, which are not to be removed publicly or even not at all, so as to protect and keep their dreadlocks clean. Apart from turban; there are several other headgears and also different types of turbans used in different parts of India and people wear them when going out especially in villages. Since they are a relatively small population, it makes them more distinctive in appearance in Jamaica and elsewhere. Kanti Ghosh, Sumit (18 May 2023). “Body, Dress, and Symbolic Capital: Multifaceted Presentation of PUGREE in Colonial Governance of British India”. This is called a Rasta headwrap. Haddad, Sh. G. F. “The turban tradition in Islam”. Wayne State University Press. Goldman, Norma; Nyenhuis, Jacob E. (1 January 1982). Latin Via Ovid: A First Course. Condra, Jill (1 January 2008). The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Clothing Through World History: 1801 to the present. D’Amato, Raffaele (10 August 2005). Roman Military Clothing (3): AD 400-640. Bloomsbury USA. Azadi, RFE/RL’s Radio. “Regional Taliban Officials Ban Beard Trimming, Impose Turbans For Male Employees”. Studio, Rajasthan (15 January 2021). “Facts about Rajasthani Pagri – The Unique Headgear of the State -“. Hughes, Thomas Patrick. A Dictionary of Islam: Being a Cyclopedia of the Doctrines, Rites, Ceremonies and Customs Together with the Technical and Theological Terms of the Muhammadan Religion. Nirvijnana Patrika, Jahangirnagar University (26): 1-14 – via Jahangirnagar University. Ghosh, Sumit Kanti (2021). “‘পাগড়ি হঠাও’: শরীর, পোশাক ও ব্রিটিশ ভারতের ঔপনিবেশিক পরিচালন”. Sharda Pustak Mandir. p. Vatovci, Isa (15 September 2020). “Tradita folklorike e Rugovës shpallet trashëgimi e mbrojtur nga shtetit”. Me, Rondo B. B. (2004). Fiji Masi: An Ancient Art in the New Millennium. Hamal, Lakshman B. (1995). Military history of Nepal. Cochrane, Susan; Quanchi, Max, eds. Burleigh Heads: Catherine Spicer and Rondo B.B. 2014). Hunting the Collectors: Pacific Collections in Australian Museums, Art Galleries and Archives. Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. Sidhu, Dawinder (2009). Civil Rights in Wartime: The Post-9/11 Sikh Experience. The New York Times. Rubin, Alyssa J. (15 October 2011). “Afghan Symbol of Identity Is Subject to Search”. Inter Islam. “The turban, topee and kurta – in the light of Ahadith and the practice of our pious predecessors”. The Times of India. Gugler, Thomas K. (22 April 2008). “Parrots of Paradise – Symbols of the Super-Muslim: Sunnah, Sunnaization and Self-Fashioning in the Islamic Missionary Movements Tablighi Jama’at, Da’wat-e Islami and Sunni Da’wat-e Islami”. Buckley, Jorunn Jacobsen (2002). The Mandaeans: ancient texts and modern people (PDF). This page was last edited on 27 March 2025, at 17:45 (UTC). 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